Clash of Titans: Alexander the Great Destroys the Persian Empire

Imagine that you are twenty-five years old. Imagine that you have a force at least five times larger than your own facing you across a battlefield. The next day will determine the course of history for centuries to come.

That is where Alexander the Great was on September 30th, 331 BCE. The Persians had an enormous army. They would send their guards pacing back and forth along the flames they had lit and watch them burn through the night. Meanwhile, Alexander, just a few miles away, went to bed without concern for his position or his future.

It was not. By sunset of the following day, the Persian Achaemenid Empire (the world’s greatest empire) would have ceased to exist.

The Battle of Gaugamela is considered to be one of the most extensively examined battles in all of history. Military schools today study the battle. Historians today continue to examine it. For anyone interested in geopolitical relationships, the use of force as a means of achieving objectives, and sheer ambition, this battle has implications that transcend time.

So what really occurred at Gaugamela in Northern Mesopotamia? Why does it matter 2400 years later?

The World Before Gaugamela: A Clash of Two Civilizations

To begin to comprehend how the Battle of Gaugemala could shake the entire known world, one has to know what was at risk.

Persia’s Achaemenid Empire was large, but that is hardly the end of it. By all measures (the size of its territories; control over land and people), the empire under Achaemenid rule was the dominant global superpower. The foundation of the empire was laid by Cyrus the Great in 550 B.C.E. Stretching from the Indus River in the east to the Mediterranean Sea in the west and from the vast steppes of modern-day Kazakhstan to the warm waters of the Persian Gulf, Persia dominated the world as far back as anyone can remember.

At its height, Persia controlled approximately 44 percent of the world’s population. The empire also had a well-developed bureaucratic system, with royal roads extending thousands of miles and a military composed of many ethnic groups. For almost all of recorded history, challenging Persia would have been seen as sheer madness.

Macedonia, however, only began to rise as a major force when Philip II, Alexander’s father, changed it from a small nation that no one paid much attention to into a strong enough military force to conquer all of Greece. He invented the “sarissa,” an 18 to 22-foot-long pike, which completely altered the face of infantry battles. The Macedonian Phalanx was almost an unbreakable wall of death on the battlefield.

Philip was murdered in 336 B.C.E., so at age 20, Alexander the Great inherited his father’s ambitions that many believed would be fulfilled by his father.

Did You Know?

Alexander the Great had been taught personally by the philosopher Aristotle for about 3 years from the time he turned 13 until he was 16. As a result of being schooled by one of history’s greatest thinkers, rather than solely in military tactics. Some historians believe that Alexander developed an exceptional capacity for strategic planning under intense pressure.

The Road to the Battle of Gaugamela

It took Alexander the Great nearly three years of unrelenting campaign marches to position himself at the site where the battle would take place. It wasn’t simply luck or circumstance; Alexander the Great planned out each step along the way and did so with strategic brilliance.

His campaign to invade Persia began in 334 B.C.E., when he had around 37,000 soldiers cross the Hellespont; he was to face his first large battle on the banks of the Granicus River. The actions he took during this initial conflict were to determine how he was to fight for the remainder of his campaign: he was to take the initiative offensively, charge into battle himself as part of his own cavalry, and exploit Persian arrogance.

The Battle of Issus in 333 BCE is one of the most important battles. Darius III made the disastrous decision to engage in battle at the narrow coastal plain. Alexander’s cavalry charged through the Persian lines in such force that it forced Darius to abandon his mother, wife, and children.

Alexander’s first reaction after taking over the luxurious tents of the king he defeated was reportedly, “I think I’ve finally found out what ‘royalty’ looks like.”

In addition to defeating Darius III on the battlefield, Alexander the Great took an unorthodox approach to eliminating the power of the Persian Navy by attacking all of their coastal bases in order to prevent their use as a base of operation. The city of Tyre was under siege by Alexander the Great for seven months, which most historians would consider an impossible goal. After conquering Tyre, he went on to conquer Egypt, and when he did, Egyptian priests proclaimed Alexander to be the son of the God Amun â€.

With this declaration from the priests of Amun â€, Alexander the Great gained one of the greatest legitimizing moments in history.

Darius’s Plan And Why It Nearly Succeeded

Although Darius III was no fool (he had been humiliated at Issus), he took the time over the next two years to rebuild his army, to choose the terrain that would allow him to “get it right” for his second chance. He chose the plain of Gaugamela, near the site where Nineveh once stood in modern-day northern Iraq.

To create as much advantage as possible for his 200 scythed war chariots, which were designed to spin their sharp blades and cut down enemy infantry forces like a harvester cutting grain fields, Darius III ordered the entire area leveled, all rocks, ridges, and other obstacles removed or smoothed out. The largest military coalition ever assembled by one person, Darius III, put together an enormous multicultural army comprised of troops from all corners of his empire, including Bactrian horsemen from Central Asia, Scythian horse archers from the steppes, Indian war elephants, Greek mercenaries, Armenian cavalry, and the elite Persian Immortals. The estimates of his size ranged anywhere from 100,000 to 250,000 men. Alexander the Great had just 47,000 men.

The night before the battle, Alexander the Great’s most senior general, Parmenion, had come to him with what seemed to be a good plan: a night attack on the Persian army. Disrupt the large formation of the enemy prior to them deploying fully; even out the odds.

Alexander the Great refused. The answer he gave is still being referenced in historical terms today. “I will not steal my victory.” He did not desire an unexpected (lucky) nighttime ambush. Instead, he desired a clear daylight victory, one which would clearly demonstrate whose better field commander he was. Afterward, Alexander the Great slept.

The Masterstroke: Alexander the Great’s Battle Formation

After his generals woke Alexander the Great early the next morning, they were surprised to find him still sleeping. It is thought that Alexander fell asleep at or shortly after sunrise. His confidence in this new formation had now given way to relaxation.

Alexander’s use of a new type of military formation demonstrated great creativity as a commander. The size difference between Alexander’s force and that of Darius made it unlikely for Alexander the Great to win with a strong but fixed formation.

Right Wing: The Hammer

Commanded by Alexander the Great (himself), the elite Companion Cavalry was to be the striking force, designed to seek out and take advantage of any weakness in the Persian lines.

Center: The Anvil

The Macedonian phalanx supported by long sarissa spears, 18 feet in length this was to create an immobile wall of steel against which the Persian forces would become stuck in the center of their formation.

Flanking Reserve Forces

The troops were positioned at an angle on either side of the phalanx formations. If the Persian numbers should start to envelop one or the other flank of the Macedonians, they could easily swing into position against them.

Second Line

Behind the phalanx stood Greek infantry. A second defensive layer against any Persian cavalry units that had broken through from the rear.

The Greek army was more than a battlefield arrangement. The Greek Army was a mechanism that could be adaptable, would be able to adjust as needed, and would have the ability to take in a large amount of punishment before being able to deliver a fatal strike when it chose to do so.

Military analysts today refer to the “hammer and anvil” dynamic as one of the fundamental tenets of what is called Combined Arms Warfare.

The Battle: Twenty Minutes That Changed History

On the early morning of October 1, 331 BCE, when the two great armies faced each other, they engaged in an astonishing first move.

Alexander began by advancing his right side (wing) at an angle, moving it intentionally to the right as if he intended to outflank the Persian left. Darius, who watched from the middle of his army, then directed Bessus and the Bactrian cavalry to move to the left to keep pace with Alexander’s movement. Thus, Darius’ lines were now being extended.

At the same time, Darius released his greatest secret: 200 scythed war chariots. These chariots were designed to “scythe” through human formations, as their name implies. These chariots would likely be devastating. But Alexander anticipated this action and had already instructed his infantry to prepare for just such a possibility. As soon as the war chariots approached the Macedonian phalanx, the men beat their spears against their shields, creating a deafening roar that panicked the chariot horses. They reared up, swerved to one side or another, and ran wildly in every direction. In places where the chariots did manage to get close enough to engage the phalanx, Alexander opened gaps within his battle formation and allowed the chariots to pass unimpeded. Then his light infantry charged forward to attack the exposed drivers of the chariots with javelin throws. Darius’ most powerful and deadly weapons had been rendered ineffective. Next, as the chariots were destroyed and the Persian lines extended due to their movement, an opening was created between the Persian left flank and center. At the same instant, Alexander recognized this opening. This was the opportunity he had designed for (or through pure instinct) Alexander directed his Companion Cavalry straight at this opening to drive like a spearhead toward the heart of the Persian army and to Darius.

The Moment Darius Broke

What followed is arguably one of the most dissected events in ancient history. When Alexander’s cavalry broke into the center of the Persian army, and the cloud of dust and confusion swirled around Darius’ location, the King decided what would be remembered as defining his legacy.

He ran for it.

It has been argued whether Darius was about to be hit with an Alexander-throw javelin, if Darius’ charioteer had just died beside him, or if he merely realized there were too many Macedonian cavalrymen charging toward him from every direction, all of which are still debated among historians. Regardless of the reason, the result was unmistakable. The “King of Kings” (the person who controlled almost half of the world) exited his chariot and rode off on a horse. Darius’ bodyguards had witnessed their king fleeing. News of this quickly traveled throughout the ranks. At some point after they discovered that their King had left them behind, the large army of Persians panicked and dispersed. Estimates range from 200,000 to 250,000 Persian soldiers disappeared rapidly, within approximately minutes.

“His largest failure at Gaugamela was not a military decision, it was a psychological choice. Once Darius made the decision to live instead of die, he provided Alexander with both victory and empire.”

Interpreted from ancient sources, including Arrian’s Anabasis Alexandri

The Aftermath: A World Transformed

Within mere weeks of the Battle of Gaugamela, the world’s greatest cities were falling to Alexander one after another; they seemed to be toppling over each other on maps across the globe.

• Babylon surrendered immediately after standing unbroken for nearly 2 millennia without firing a shot.
• Susa opened its doors and released treasure troves (vaults) of 50,000 gold talents, which is an unimaginable amount of money.
• Persepolis, the ceremonial capital of the Persian Empire, a city built with grandeur unmatched in history, surrendered to Alexander.

Historians have long debated whether this act of destruction was some form of vengeance for Xerxes’ burning of Athens or if Alexander the Great was drunk and merely stumbled upon it. Regardless of the reason, Persepolis’ palace of Xerxes was destroyed by fire. Darius himself escaped toward the east, but there was nowhere for him to hide. By 330 BCE, his own satraps (regional governors) turned against him, capturing and stabbing him to death. It is reported that when Alexander the Great arrived, he came upon Darius’ body lying dead beside the road and placed his own cloak over the body, instructing that it be buried like royalty. This would prove to be the last act of dignity afforded to Darius by either Alexander or his allies.

Alexander the Great spent the next seven years continuing his conquest, moving into present-day Afghanistan, crossing the Hindu Kush mountain range, and then finally into modern-day India, where his exhausted army refused to continue. He died in Babylon in 323 BCE at age 32; however, during his lifetime, he had never been defeated in battle.

The Legacy: Why Gaugamela Still Matters

Historians of warfare, political theorists, and military strategists continue to examine Gaugamela as a unique example of timeless principles concerning authority, command, and the character of decisions that have no time limit.

In terms of geography (the politics of where), the battle did more than simply exchange one leader with another. The battle reshaped the cultural landscape of the known world. After Alexander’s victory came the Hellenistic Age, which was an era of the spreading of Greek language, philosophy, art, and science throughout all of the Middle East, parts of Central Asia, and Egypt. This cultural diffusion continues today in architectural examples such as those in Alexandria to Afghanistan. Alexander the Great also created new roads connecting civilizations that were previously separated. He established over seventy cities during his campaigns, including Alexandria in Egypt, which became a key commercial and educational center of its time. These cities contributed to shaping the ancient world for generations after Alexander’s death. Finally, in a strictly military sense, many of the tactics Alexander the Great employed at Gaugamela (the oblique attack, the hammer-and-anvil formation, the use of a mobile reserve unit, etc.) continue to be the basic tenets of modern military theory.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Why is the Battle of Gaugamela considered Alexander’s greatest victory?

Gaugamela is considered Alexander the Great’s crowning achievement. Alexander, while greatly outnumbered (by almost five-to-one), achieved an overwhelming victory on hostile ground that was carefully selected and designed for battle by his foe.

While at the Battle of Issus, the battlefield was so confined geographically that the number of soldiers available to Darius severely restricted his ability to utilize them. At Gaugamela, however, the Persians had all of the geographical advantages: space, quantity of men, and specialty weaponry, but were unable to overcome their disadvantage of having fewer men than they needed. Therefore, the degree of tactical genius required to create such a successful result under these specific conditions makes it unparalleled in ancient military history. How large were the armies at the Battle of Gaugamela?

At Gaugamela, Alexander led about 47,000 troops made up of Macedonian Phalangites, elite Companion Cavalrymen, various other allied Greek warriors, and mercenaries. Estimates of the size of the Persian army vary widely among the ancient authors and among contemporary historians. The largest estimates are in excess of 250,000; others estimate only one hundred thousand. Some ancient accounts suggest that there may have been even greater numbers present. Among modern historians, the most commonly accepted estimate is that the Persian army numbered somewhere between 100,000 and 120,000 warriors. That would represent an extremely large numeric superiority for Darius.

What happened to Darius III after the Battle of Gaugamela?

Darius fled Gaugamela and retreated toward the east with what remained of his army. He hoped to gather another large army. His authority never recovered, however. Two years after his defeat at Gaugamela, in 330 BCE, his own satrap, Bessus (the Bactrian commander of the Persian left wing at Gaugamela), seized Darius and assassinated him. When Alexander arrived, he discovered Darius lying by the side of the road and apparently covering him with his own cape. Alexander ordered that Darius be buried as a king and declared himself the rightful ruler of Persia as the next great king.

Where exactly did the Battle of Gaugamela take place?

The Battle of Gaugamela took place on flat land near ancient Nineveh, located in the region now called Kurdistan in Northern Iraq, and just north of Mosul. The location had been chosen and prepared by Darius over a period of two years. Specifically, he leveled out much of the landscape to make use of his scythed war chariot designs and formation tactics.

How did Alexander the Great’s victory at Gaugamela affect world history?

Following his loss at Gaugamela, the collapse of the Persian Empire marked the beginning of the Hellenistic Period, when Greek language, customs, philosophies, and sciences rapidly expanded throughout the Middle East, Egypt, and Central Asia. This period also facilitated trade through newly formed connections between East and West, poured Persian wealth from its treasuries into the Mediterranean economy, and provided a model for multicultural empires for future civilizations such as Rome, Byzantium, and eventually the Islamic Caliphs. The establishment of cities by Alexander (including Alexandria in Egypt) provided centers for learning that influenced human progress for many centuries.

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We are continuing an ongoing series of articles about ancient military history, geopolitical events, and the power structures that have formed the basis of today’s modern world. Recommended reading for students, those taking competitive exams, or simply those who believe understanding the past provides the best possible framework to interpret the present.